On this page:

• Overview
• Objective
• Research questions
• Data collection
• Study participants
• Gambling participation
• Gambling at risk of harm
• Alcohol use
• Initiation to gambling and alcohol use
• Co-consumption of gambling and alcohol
• Help seeking
• Concluding remarks
• Acknowledgement
• Citation
• References

Overview

Gambling and alcohol use are high prevalence behaviours in youths and young adults and may contribute to a range of social and health harms – both independently and when co-consumed. The Bets ’n’ Booze study¹ explored the social contexts, harms and predictors of co-consumption of gambling and alcohol in youths and young adults (aged 16–35 years) living in Australia.

This research summary presents key findings from this study of the intersection between gambling and alcohol use among Australian youths and young adults. It was conducted by the Australian Gambling Research Centre (AGRC) at the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS).

The study used a mixed methods design, comprising: (a) an online survey of a convenience sample of people who were aged 16–35 years and reported past-year gambling (n = 1,168), and (b) in-depth semi-structured individual interviews (via telephone) with a subsample of survey participants who reported co-consumption of gambling and alcohol (n = 18).

Key messages

• Around half of survey participants said they ‘often’, ‘very often/almost always’ or ‘always’ consumed alcohol when gambling.
• Licensed venues create an environment where gambling and alcohol are co-consumed.
• Socialising with friends or with a spouse/partner and other family member was often the motivation for the co-consumption of gambling and alcohol among youths and young adults.
• Initiation to gambling and alcohol use at the age of 18, or before reaching the age of 18, was often seen as a rite of passage for young people in Australia.
• Underage gambling and/or alcohol use was associated with greater gambling and/or alcohol related harms in the participant’s adult life.
• Despite the majority of the sample being at risk of gambling harm, most respondents did not seek help because they did not believe they needed help.
• For the small proportion who wanted to seek help but did not, the most common reason was embarrassment.

Objective

The objective of the study was to improve understanding of the relationships and interplay between gambling and alcohol use (i.e. co-consumption) and related harms among youths and young adults in Australia aged 16–35 years.

This summary discusses the policy implications of these findings and outlines a number of recommendations for government to consider in relation to addressing the issues of high and at-risk gambling among this age group.

Research questions

The study aimed to answer the following research questions:

• What are the contexts in which youths’ and young adults’ co-consumption of gambling and alcohol occurs?
• What role do friends and family play in youths’ and young adults’ co-consumption of gambling and alcohol?
• What are the effects of co-consumption of gambling and alcohol on wellbeing of youths and young adults?
• Do youths and young adults use help to stop or reduce gambling?

Data collection

Online survey

A 15–20 minute online survey was conducted between 13 August 2022 and 20 September 2022. The survey recruited approximately 1,168 youths and young adults (aged 16–35 years) living in Australia who reported gambling in the past 12 months. This convenience sample was recruited through advertisements on social media (e.g. Facebook). The survey asked participants about their gambling activities and alcohol consumption.

In-depth interviews

In-depth semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with a subsample of the online survey participants who reported the co-consumption of gambling and alcohol in the past 12 months. A purposive approach to sample selection was used for the online survey with the aim of including participants representative of various ages, sex and locations. Invitations to be interviewed were emailed incrementally to potential participants in batches of 10 between December 2022 and May 2023, until data saturation was achieved (i.e. until no new information was emerging from additional interviews).

Each interview was conducted by a researcher via telephone. The interviews were audio-recorded with the consent of participants, and later transcribed. Researchers also took notes during and after each interview. The average duration of interviews was 37 minutes (range: 19–54 minutes).

The interview questions explored:

• the context of participants’ gambling behaviours (e.g. What type of gambling activities do you participate in? Is your gambling usually planned or spontaneous?)
• their initiation to gambling and alcohol use (e.g. Can you tell me about the time when you first gambled/consumed alcohol?)
• the context of their co-consumption of gambling and alcohol (e.g. Can you describe a usual situation when you drink and gamble?)
• the influence of others (e.g. Can you tell me about who you usually drink and gamble with?)
• their health and wellbeing (e.g. Can you tell me about any effects of drinking and gambling on your health and wellbeing?)
• any help-seeking behaviours (e.g. Have you ever sought help for your drinking or gambling?).

Study participants

Online survey participants

It is important to note that this is a convenience sample, meaning the sample is taken from a group of people that are easy to contact or reach. Convenience sampling is a practical and cost-effective method for research when aiming to get a preliminary understanding of a phenomenon. However, the sample may not be representative of the entire population, which can introduce bias and affect the generalisability of the results.

• A total of 1,168 participants aged 16–35 years provided valid responses to the online survey.
• About two-thirds of participants were male (64%).
• About one-third were aged 18–25 years (37%) and around half were aged 26–35 years (58%).
• Most participants were employed (87%) and around one-third were studying (31%).
• About one-in-four participants (27%) had a weekly income of less than $600.
• Fifty-nine per cent were in a relationship or married and only a small proportion lived alone (12%).
• The sample included participants from all the Australian states and territories. Most participants resided in either New South Wales (32%), Queensland (23%) or Victoria (22%).
• About two-thirds of participants lived in major cities (70%) and around one-third in regional or remote areas (30%).

Table 1: Characteristics of survey participants

In-depth interview participants

• A total of 18 youths and young adults participated in an in-depth individual interview (7 females, 11 males).
• The average age of participants was 27 years (range: 19–34 years).
• Relationship status of participants included married/de facto (n = 8), in a relationship (n = 5) and single (n = 5).
• The majority of participants were employed (n = 15) and most had completed a year 12 or higher level of education (i.e. university) (n = 10).
• The majority of participants lived in major cities (n = 12), followed by inner regional areas (n = 5) and outer regional areas (n = 1).
• State/territory locations of participants included New South Wales (n = 8), Victoria (n = 3), South Australia (n = 3), Queensland (n = 2), Tasmania (n = 1) and the Northern Territory (n = 1).

Gambling participation

Past-year gambling

In this convenience sample (people who were aged 16–35 years and had gambled in the last 12 months), electronic gambling machines (EGMs) (also referred to as pokies or poker machines) were the most popular category of past-year gambling participation for both males (76%) and females (76%).

For all other gambling products, there were statistically significant differences between males’ and females’ past-year gambling participation (see Figure 1). For example, a significantly higher proportion of males than females reported past-year gambling on sports events (75% vs 39%), horse racing (70% vs 49%) and greyhound racing (59% vs 29%).

A significantly higher proportion of females than males reported past-year gambling on instant scratch tickets (75% vs 52%), lotteries (73% vs 58%), and keno (45% vs 37%).

Figure 1: Gambling participation by category and sex (% of total)

Notes. * denotes statistically significant difference between males and females. Due to the sample size restrictions, individuals who did not identify as male or female were not included in this analysis.

Frequent (at least weekly) gambling

Forty-five per cent of the survey participants gambled weekly. Sex differences in the survey data were also apparent in weekly gambling participation (see Figure 2). For example, significantly higher proportions of males than females reported weekly gambling on sports (29% vs 7%), horse racing (24% vs 7%), and greyhound racing (16% vs 6%).

However, similar proportions of males and females reported weekly gambling on pokies (18% and 16%, respectively) and lotteries (8% and 11%, respectively).

Instant scratch tickets were the only category in which a significantly higher proportion of females (7%) than males (1%) reported weekly gambling participation.

Figures 1 and 2 show the sex differences in gambling participation and frequencies. This could imply that a gender-responsive approach may be important in developing prevention and treatment strategies.

Figure 2: Weekly gambling participation by category and sex (% of total)

Notes. * denotes statistically significant difference between males and females. Due to the sample size restrictions, individuals who did not identify as male or female were not included in this analysis.

During the in-depth interviews with youths and young adults, many said they had weekly gambling habits and routines.

Monday to Wednesday I don’t bet a lot, but then once the rugby league starts, on the weekend, then I’ll start betting a lot more on the football. (Male aged 26, P015)

I do buy a lottery ticket every week. If there’s like a major jackpot on, I’ll probably buy an additional one. Lotto would be something that I kind of do very ritualistically. (Male aged 29, P007)

If we’ve had a bit of a long day at work or stressful day, we’ll go and have drink to just chill out. It’s usually paired up with being in the pokies room. We don’t plan it. We’ve got into a bit of a habit. (Female aged 31, P010)

Every day I would normally bet like through Sportsbet or TAB, and pokies maybe twice a week. (Male aged 23, P018)

Gambling at risk of harm

At-risk gambling

We assessed gambling-related harms among survey participants by using the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001, see Box 1).

Figure 3 shows that in this convenience sample, about two-thirds of participants (68%) met the criteria for at-risk gambling (i.e. low-risk, moderate-risk and high-risk (problem gambling) combined). However, there are sex differences in the prevalence of at-risk gambling, with a significantly larger proportion of males (73%) in the at-risk group than females (58%).

Figure 3: At-risk gambling by level of severity and by sex

Notes: At-risk gambling levels are based on PGSI classifications of severity. Individuals who did not identify as male or female were excluded from this analysis due sample size restrictions.

Experience of gambling harms

Large proportions of participants reported experiencing harms associated with their gambling, including harms to their finances, employment or studies, physical and mental health, and their relationships (see Figure 4).

On average, participants reported experiencing between one and two gambling harms in the past year (mean number of harms = 1.3).

Out of the 10 harms explored in the survey, those most reported by participants included: ‘Had less spending on recreational expenses such as eating out, going to movies or other entertainment (25%); ‘Had regrets that made you feel sorry about your gambling’ (24%); ‘Used my work or study time to gamble’ (14%); ‘Increased my consumption of alcohol’ (14%); and ‘Increased experience of depression’ (13%).

Figure 4: Gambling harms experienced

During the in-depth interviews, many participants reported feelings of regret about the harms to their relationships, mental health and finances from gambling and alcohol use.

Gambling did have a little bit to do with our separation with my ex-husband, his drinking and gambling. We actually ended up separating very quickly, like after a night of drinking and him gambling. So, it did affect my marriage. (Female aged 34, P001)

The mental toll it takes makes me a bit depressed after I’ve been on the piss all weekend and then I’ve gone and punted. And I wake up on that Monday and my bank says to me here’s your overall balance for the weekend and it’s like five grand. I went out with 200 bucks. How did I spend five grand? And then I’m scratching my head on where I’ve got this money from. And then I’ll go try and figure out how to make money to then pay back to people that if I’ve borrowed money from. (Female aged 22, P009)

Generally speaking, you’re more likely to lose it (money). Maybe up to $500. You sort of regret doing that, but sometimes you’re in the flow of it and you’ve had a drink or two. (Female aged 31, P010)

One participant reflected that a huge gambling loss led to them drinking to cope with their feeling of depression.

After a big gambling session, or a very disappointing amount of losses, I do feel anxiety, financial pressures, and things like that. It has led me to depression, periods of depression. It does increase my drinking. I’ve definitely noticed. (Male aged 25, P016)

Alcohol use

Survey participants were asked to complete the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C; see Box 2). Overall, males in this sample had a statistically significant higher AUDIT-C score (6.7) than females (5.5).

As shown in Figure 5, drinking at a higher frequency was more prevalent in males than females. For example, more than a third of males (35%) reported drinking 2 to 3 times a week, compared to around a quarter of females (26%). Furthermore, around one-fifth of males (22%) reported drinking 4 or more times a week, compared to around one-sixth of females (15%).

Figure 5: Alcohol consumption (AUDIT-C) by sex

Note: Participants who did not identify as male or female and selected ‘other’ sex were excluded from the analysis due to sample size restrictions.

The current Australian alcohol guidelines recommend that, to reduce the risk of harm from alcohol-related disease or injury, healthy men and women should drink no more than 4 standard drinks on a single day and no more than 10 standard drinks in a week (National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC], 2020).

As Figure 5 shows, a large proportion of participants reported consuming alcohol above the single day guidelines. For example, 54% of male participants and 43% of female participants reported drinking above the recommended maximum single occasion level (i.e. 5+ standard drinks on a typical day).

Another important measure of the harmful use of alcohol in the population is the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking (HED), which the World Health Organization defines as consuming 6+ standard drinks on one occasion in the past month. HED is considered a reliable indicator of an increased risk of experiencing acute alcohol-related harm as well as developing chronic health complications. As Figure 5 shows, there is a higher prevalence of HED in male participants (70%) than females (45%) in this sample (i.e. consuming 6+ standard drinks on a single occasion monthly, weekly or daily).

Initiation to gambling and alcohol use

Initiation to gambling

Although it is illegal in Australia for persons under 18 years of age to gamble, the average age of initiation to gambling (with real money) reported by participants was 17.7 years of age. Almost one-third (29%) reported gambling before 18 years of age.

Among those who were weekly gamblers in this sample, the average age of starting to gamble on a weekly basis was 21 years. The gambling products in which participants reported the highest rate of participation before 18 years of age included pokies (34%), horse racing (20%), sports (15%) and instant scratch tickets (9%).

In the in-depth interviews, many described initiations to gambling and alcohol use as a rite of passage for youths and young adults in Australia both at the age of 18 and before the age of 18.

I could tell you my exact first bet. I was 18. It was the 2014 NRL grand final. If you downloaded the betting app, they gave you a free $50 bet. So I put my $50 bet on. That was my first bet. (Male aged 26, P015)

Might have been when I turned 18 and I went to the local club, the bowling club. Put twenty bucks on, or something. (Male aged 19, P017)

Some participants said that it was relatively easy to enter a licenced venue when they were underage.

My earliest experience, like in an actual pub with alcohol, was when I was 16. I played the pokies at the same time as drinking. I was 16. I was a rebellious teenager who had borrowed my older sister’s ID. (Female aged 34, P005)

I’d say my first gambling experiences, was when I managed to get into a casino underage and bet on roulette, and I would have been 17 at that time. (Male aged 29, P007)

I’d put on a couple of bets, early on, on the Melbourne Cup and that sort of thing, when I was 16 or 17, because I could get into pubs when I was underage. (Female aged 34, P001)

Considering the findings from both the online survey and the qualitative interviews that highlight underage access to venues for gambling, there may be a need for compliance checks and stronger enforcement of age limits in venues.

Initiation to alcohol use

The survey responses and in-depth interviews also indicated that initiation to alcohol use, like gambling, often occurred before the age 18 years. The average age of alcohol initiation reported by participants was 16 years. Around 4 in 5 participants (78%) reported consuming alcohol before 18 years of age.

An early initiation and harms

In our analysis of survey responses, we found those who started gambling underage had a higher, statistically significant PGSI score (0.8 point higher) than those who did not start gambling underage. Similarly, those who started drinking alcohol underage had a higher, statistically significant AUDIT-C score (0.8 point higher) than those who started drinking in adulthood.

Initiation with family members

Some interview participants mentioned that their first experience with alcohol and gambling was alongside their family members.

The first time I started gambling was after my 18th. My mum was like, ‘Oh, here’s fifty bucks. Go whack it through the pokies. You’re an adult now.’ (Female aged 22, P009)

I’m pretty sure the first time I ever had an alcoholic drink was with my parents and I was 14. And I remember the first time I played pokies was when I was like 16, it was on my 16th birthday. I actually just went into the pokies room and never got asked for ID. I went in there one night with my dad and my uncle and I remember playing the pokies. (Male aged 31, P011)

Co-consumption of gambling and alcohol

Most survey participants (80%) reported some frequency of alcohol use when gambling (see Figure 6). About half (49%) said they ‘often’, ‘very often/almost always’ or ‘always’ drink when gambling.

In our analysis of survey responses, we tested for statistically significant group differences in gambling-related harms between those who reported frequently drinking when gambling (often, very often, almost always, always) compared to those who do not frequently drink when gambling (non-drinker, never, sometimes).

The analysis found those who frequently drink when gambling had statistically significant higher PGSI scores (1.6 point higher) than those who do not frequently drink when gambling.

Figure 6: Frequency of alcohol use when gambling (past 12 months)

In the in-depth interviews, participants often described a close relationship between their gambling and alcohol use. Some participants described an environment where both gambling and drinking were both readily available.

If I’ve gone out for dinner with some friends at the pub, we usually have our meal and 2 or 3 glasses of wine or 3 glasses of beer. Once dinner has finished, I would order another drink and go into the gaming room, and I would get $50 or $100 and put it in whichever (pokies) machine I wanted. (Female aged 34, P005)

They go pretty hand in hand I find. If I plan to put a bet on Keno, I’ll get a beer and then go to the Keno counter. Tend to get a drink first and then head into that area. (Male aged 25, P016)

Get a beer (at the pub). Go outside. Have a smoke. Usually got the races on the telly. If I know anything good is on I’ll have a quick look through the TAB app. If there’s anything going on, and I feel like it, I’ll have a bit of a bet. (Male aged 19, P017)

Some participants, however, said that their alcohol consumption led to excessive spending on gambling.

I do find that once I’ve had a few drinks, I tend to gamble more. (Female aged 34, P001)

You loosen your spending (on pokies) when you have more drinks. You’re less conscious of your spending. More likely to drink and play the pokies. They go hand in hand. (Female aged 31, P010).

I’m definitely more impulsive when I’ve had a drink. (Female aged 34, P001)

The more I drink, the more I put through the pokies, and the more money I’ll borrow or I’ll go: ‘Can you shout dinner? Because my dinner money has just gone through the pokies.’ (Female aged 22, P009)

A few participants, despite describing the availability of both gambling and alcohol in venues, did not perceive their consumption of both gambling and alcohol to be correlated.

It’s about 50% of the time that I’m drinking in environments where there is a TAB or there is an opportunity to bet. As much as they would go hand in hand with my lifestyle, I don’t necessarily think that if I’m drinking, I immediately need to have a bet. (Male aged 29, P007)

Social aspects of gambling and drinking

Figure 7: Motivation of gambling

Figure 7 shows motivations of gambling. About half of the participants said that gambling was a social activity for them (49%). About one-third said that they gambled when they drank (29%). More than a third (38%) of respondents noted that having a bet made watching the activity more interesting, indicative of the integration of gambling with sports.

Furthermore, this cohort of youths and young adults saw gambling as a tool to ‘make money/get ahead financially’ (35%), even though the odds of this are very low.

The social aspects of gambling and alcohol consumption (alcohol and gambling) were highlighted by some participants during the in-depth interviews.

It would either be [with] my husband, my sister, or a small group of friends that we go out to pubs and for dinner. Predominantly it would be with my husband. He will go along with me to keep me company and he’ll do a very minimal betting. (Female aged 34, P005)

I’ll just go around to the pub on my own and sit there for an hour or two, have a quick beer and then put the bets on […] I’ve got, like, a group of mates here that I’ll catch up with who like to have a bet as well. (Male aged 31, P011)

The online survey also asked participants about the last session where they spent money on gambling. They were then asked, during this session, who they gambled with. Figure 8 shows that for drinkers’ most recent gambling session without alcohol (non-drinking session) they tended to gamble by themselves.

On the other hand, when alcohol was involved with gambling, there was a clear preference in this sample to gamble with friends and family members. Co-consumption of gambling and alcohol among youths and young adults often involved other people. Friends were the most common (59% for male and 43% for female). A spouse/partner/family member was also common for young females (27% with spouse/partner and 12% with other family members).

Figure 8: Who did you gamble with in the last session? (by sex)

Note: Participants who did not identify as male or female and selected ‘other’ sex were excluded from the analysis due to sample size restrictions.

Help seeking

Although a high proportion of the survey participants in this sample were seen as high-risk gambling (20%) and at-risk gambling (67%) populations, few sought help. The online survey asked whether the participants sought any help in the past 12 months (n = 1,138). Eighty-eight per cent of participants said that they did not need help and 8% said that they wanted to seek help but did not. Only 4% said that they had sought help. It appears that some people who were engaging in high-risk gambling were either unaware or in denial of experiencing gambling harms.

The online survey further asked those who wanted to seek help but did not, why they did not seek help (n = 87). The most common reasons participants attributed to why they did not seek help was embarrassment (71%) followed by ‘did not think that it would help’ (36%) and financial (16%). The findings imply that there are some levels of stigma attached to seeking help for harmful gambling.

Some respondents highlighted the importance of peer support with people who have walked the same path in their treatment.

In the past, my gambling did get quite out of hand and that did make me depressed. I did engage a counsellor. Then I put some things in place; betting restrictions on accounts and stuff like that. I also went to Gamblers Anonymous and found that was probably the most help out of everything. That sort of peer support with people that have walked the same path in life as you. (Male aged 31, P011)

Concluding remarks

The findings from this study show that the co-consumption of alcohol and gambling is common among youths and young adults in Australia. Licensed venues create an environment where gambling and alcohol are co-consumed. Co-consumption of gambling and alcohol among youths and young adults was often motivated by socialising with friends, with a spouse/partner or other family member.

Male participants in this sample were more likely to gamble alongside their peers, whereas females reported gambling more frequently with their spouse or partner in their most recent session. There are some possible gender differences in their gambling participation by product, frequency and whom they gamble with.

Initiation to gambling and alcohol use at the age of 18 and before reaching the age of 18 was often seen as a rite of passage for young people in Australia and, in some cases, underage gambling was initiated by their parents.

Despite the high proportion of high-risk gambling and at-risk gambling in this sample, very few said they had sought for help with their gambling. The main reason why people did not seek help was embarrassment.

These findings pose a range of policy implications for government that include consideration of:

• tougher compliance with laws around underage drinking and gambling in land-based facilities with improved identification processes prior to venue entry
• promoting awareness and education on the co-consumption of gambling and alcohol and possible related harms, which may be protective for young people, particularly as they approach the legal age in Australia
• gender-responsive gambling prevention and treatment approaches (e.g. messaging and taglines)
• approaches aimed at de-stigmatising public discourse and awareness on harmful gambling to promote help-seeking behaviour by young people.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the support and assistance provided by the Department of Social Services, in particular, colleagues from the Financial Wellbeing Branch. The authors would also like to thank every Bets ‘n’ Booze study participant who has devoted their time and energy to completing study.

Citation

Sakata, K., Jenkinson, R., Vandenberg, B., Greer, N., Wickramasinghe, S., & Jatkar, U. (2024). Bets ’n’ Booze research summary Intersections of gambling and alcohol use among Australian youth and young adults. Melbourne: Australian Gambling Research Centre, Australian Institute of Family Studies.

References

Bush, K., Kivlahan, D. R., McDonell, M. B., Fihn, S. D., & Bradley, K. A. (1998). The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(16),1789–1795. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789. PMID: 9738608.

Ferris, J., & Wynne, H. (2001). The Canadian Problem Gambling Index: Final report. Ottawa: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). 2020. Alcohol: Australian guidelines to reduce health risks from drinking alcohol. NHMRC.

Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation. (2024). Reducing stigma: A guide for talking about gambling harm. Melbourne: Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation.

¹This project was approved by the AIFS Human Research Ethics Committee (AIFS HREC) on 13 December 2021 (ethics application number 2021/05).

Feautured image: © gettyimages/RgStudio