Introduction

This short article summarises the key findings from a systematic review by Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) on father engagement and attendance in behavioural parent training (BPT) – a widely used type of parenting intervention – and the barriers to father engagement. In their review, Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) cite Fabiano and Caserta (2018) to define father engagement as the ‘mechanisms in place to invite, enrol and admit fathers’ into parenting interventions.

Evidence-based parenting interventions have been shown to have immediate and long-term positive effects on children’s behaviours and overall wellbeing as well as on parenting practice and skills (Gonzalez et al., 2023; Lechowicz et al., 2019). Research evidence shows that when parenting interventions actively involve both fathers¹ and mothers, there are increased positive changes in children’s behaviour and greater improvements in parenting practices (Lechowicz et al., 2019). However, the evidence also suggests that fathers are less likely to participate in parenting interventions aimed at supporting children’s behaviours and are underrepresented in parent support services in general (Gonzalez et al., 2023).

It is important to support fathers’ engagement in parenting interventions to increase the benefits of interventions for children and families (Lechowicz et al., 2019). Although mothers are still responsible for most child care and household labour, fathers’ day-to-day involvement is growing and fathers can make a unique and important contribution to child development and support child wellbeing (Gonzalez et al., 2023). Understanding how to engage fathers in parenting interventions means child and family practitioners can better help fathers to build parenting skills and share the responsibility with mothers for their children’s overall wellbeing (Niec et al., 2015).

Gonzalez and colleagues’ (2023) review of 26 studies examined the intervention (e.g. format and setting) and implementation characteristics (e.g. practitioner training) associated with father engagement. It focused on studies that described different father-specific engagement strategies (e.g. inviting fathers directly, father-only groups and adapting intervention to incorporate father preferences). Most of the reviewed interventions were undertaken in the USA, with a few in the Netherlands.

What are parenting interventions and why is father engagement important?

Parenting interventions include any program that provides education, training, coaching or support to primary caregivers of children between 0 and 12 years with the overall objective of improving child outcomes by improving parenting practices or parent–child and family relationships (Parenting Research Centre, 2012). Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) examined father engagement in BPT, a specific type of parenting intervention focused on teaching parents skills and strategies to identify, understand and support their children’s behaviours. Although different BPT interventions vary in their details, they commonly focus on encouraging parents to practice strategies with their child and showing parents how to incorporate the skills into their daily lives (Gonzalez et al., 2023).

BPT interventions are widely used (and known to be effective) in the prevention and treatment of child behaviour problems and ‘disruptive behaviour disorders’ (such as ‘opposition defiant disorder’) (Rodriguez et al., 2023). Gonzalez and colleagues’ (2023) review included both father specific BPT interventions and interventions aimed at parents and caregivers in general (as long as they included fathers). Their goals were to understand the degree to which fathers engaged in such interventions and the strategies used to engage fathers (where this was recorded).

Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) noted that BPT interventions were often developed with female caregivers in mind and, as a result, did not include fathers in their design, evaluation or delivery. In this way, gender biases could manifest in parenting interventions, tending to reproduce a mothering rather than fathering cultural model of care (Panter-Brick et al., 2014).

However, they also observed that the evidence showed benefits to fathers engaging in positive parenting and that father engagement in BPT interventions, in particular, has shown improved child outcomes and parenting behaviours. Specifically, they noted that:

• When fathers engage positively in parenting interventions, they can have a lasting positive impact on child development and intervention outcomes.
• Support from fathers is associated with positive pro-social relationships and friendships in children.
• Fathers engaging in complex play with children is associated with increased language skills in children.
• Fathers included in BPT interventions report more positive changes in child behaviours and desirable parenting strategies (e.g. use of praise), and are associated with longer-term positive outcomes.

What does the research evidence say about father engagement in parenting interventions?

Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) observed that fathers’ engagement and attendance of in BPT has historically been low. In their own review, they noted that many studies did not record the degree to which fathers engaged in parenting interventions. They also found that reporting of father attendance at BPTs was even lower and/or inconsistent, and that less than a quarter of the 26 studies reviewed had reported the proportion of sessions attended by fathers (Gonzalez et al., 2023). Where it was measured, father engagement and attendance varied greatly; their review of studies of BPT interventions found that father engagement ranged between approximately 4% and 100%.

However, some of the studies of BPT interventions reviewed appeared to have had notable success in getting fathers to attend and complete specific interventions. In particular:

• Over 75% father attendance rates were achieved in 2 of the 3 studies that used the Coaching out Acting out Children: Heightening Essential Skills (COACHES)² intervention, an intervention specifically designed for fathers/male caregivers.
• A study of the Parent Management Training Oregon Model (PMTO),³ conducted in a foster care setting, reported that 71% of families had both parents attend the training.

These findings suggest that certain aspects of these BPT interventions could be adapted, such as shared father–child activity, to help to support fathers’ engagement and attendance. However, Gonzalez and colleagues noted that it was not clear if the high levels of father engagement recorded by some interventions were the result of the form or content of these specific interventions, the strategies they used to engage fathers or other unknown factors. We describe some of the strategies that these and other interventions have used to engage fathers later in this resource.

What are the barriers to father engagement in parenting interventions?

Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) noted that despite the evidence showing that father engagement in BPT increases positive outcomes for children and parents; fathers are less likely to be engaged in the program than mothers. Their review identified the following barriers to father engagement:

• The gendered roles/expectations of parenting from families, society or fathers themselves often leads to mothers taking on primary responsibility for caregiving. This can prevent fathers from building stronger relationships with their children or recognising the value of enhancing their parenting skills.
• Research and practice can unintentionally reinforce gendered expectations of parenting when they frame mothers as primary carers and the father as a secondary caregiver. This makes it easier for parenting researchers to include mothers in the research or practice interventions and to ignore or place lesser value on the participation of fathers.
• In addition to gendered expectations of parenting roles, fathers may show lower readiness to change their parenting behaviours and find BPT less acceptable than mothers.
• Child and family practitioners report barriers to engaging fathers can include difficulties with scheduling around fathers’ availability and parents having differing perceptions of child problems.

What father-specific engagement strategies are used in parenting interventions?

Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) identified a number of strategies that evidence-based BPT interventions have used to increase father engagement. The review was not able to identify whether these strategies increased father engagement or made the interventions more effective. However, Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) suggested that the strategies listed may still be of interest to practitioners seeking to engage fathers in BPT or other parenting interventions.

The most common father-specific engagement strategy was to alter the intervention format or content to address father-specific parenting concerns and practices. Examples of this were:

• including recreational activities (e.g. such as father–child soccer drills and games) that can support fathers to implement parenting skills in real time. This was a feature of the father-specific COACHES program (as well as many other interventions).
• providing overarching knowledge about the importance of father engagement. This could include explanations of the benefits of father engagement on child development, strategies for managing father-specific parenting challenges (e.g. co-parenting, balancing work and parenting responsibilities, ways to show physical affection, or enhancing children’s self-esteem) and father-identified areas of interest (e.g. support to improve children’s social skills).

Other father-specific engagement strategies:

• Use a non-clinical setting. This was the second most common strategy for engaging fathers. Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) found that although a third of the studies they reviewed had interventions delivered in a clinical setting, father engagement in clinical settings is typically low. Hence some interventions aimed to deliver interventions or training in other kinds of settings. For example, the COACHES intervention was delivered in a recreational setting (and/or school), where physical education teachers were able to provide sports education in a physical gym space (Fabiano et al., 2021). However, not all interventions undertaken in a school setting had similar success engaging fathers. Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) suggested that delivering interventions via telehealth may have some promise for increasing father engagement.
• Use a strengths-based approach to involve fathers in the intervention, and promote this during the enrolment process. The strengths-based approaches focused on the important contributions fathers make to their children’s lives (e.g. practitioners are positive about the father’s ability and are honest about the issues faced). In addition, they acknowledged the father’s existing skills and used solution-focused thinking to develop further skills and build confidence (Maxwell et al., 2012).
• Offer flexible hours and child care to encourage fathers to attend sessions.
• Have lower expectations for fathers’ attendance (and working parents in general) and allow individual caregivers to attend alternate sessions so that all caregivers are not required to attend every session.
• Invite the child/ren to participate in the intervention along with fathers to enhance father–child interactions.
• Make additional provisions for fathers unable to participate in an intervention. This could include organising 1–2 intervention ‘booster’ sessions at the end of the intervention for fathers to provide them with the information given to other caregivers during the intervention.
• Ensure that examples and exercises used in the intervention include father-specific illustrations of parenting techniques (Frank et al., 2015). For example, using images that include fathers and/or using homework assignments to support father involvement.
• Undertake cultural adaptions of existing BPT interventions for specific population groups. Gonzalez and colleagues (2022) noted that a version of the PMTO intervention adapted for Latino fathers – which promoted a hybrid style of fathering that included both traditional and modern views on parenting roles and responsibilities – had recorded high retention rates for fathers.

Conclusion

This article summarised the findings of a recent systematic review that reported on father-specific engagement strategies used in BPT interventions to improve children’s behaviour and wellbeing. The findings indicate that we still do not fully understand what actions or strategies can increase father engagement. However, some specific interventions have reported high levels of father engagement (e.g. father-specific interventions such as COACHES as well as general parenting interventions such as PMTO). In these interventions, practitioners had often modified the format and/or content to increase father–child interaction and some suggested that the treatment setting may also be important for supporting fathers’ engagement.

Although the evidence is still emerging, practitioners who are looking to increase father engagement can investigate the strategies that Gonzalez and colleagues (2023) identified as elements in interventions reporting positive outcomes. Better understanding of father-specific engagement strategies can play an important role in implementing father-inclusive practices and contributing to child development and wellbeing.

About the review this article is based on

This article is based on the review Intervention and Implementation Characteristics to Enhance Father Engagement: A Systematic Review of Parenting Interventions, (2023), Gonzalez, J. C., Klein, C. C., Barnett, M. L., Schatz, N. K., Garoosi, T., Chacko, A., & Fabiano, G. A.

The review identified and summarised treatment studies published between 1990 and 2022 that reported on BPT interventions where fathers were included as participants or targeted specifically by study aims. Data were extracted from a total of 26 studies. Of these, only 8 studies described father engagement strategies in detail.

Further reading and related resources

• Enhancing father engagement in parenting programs: This resource, from Emerging Minds, provides a summary of the paper Enhancing father engagement in parenting programs: Translating research into practice recommendations.
• Engaging fathers in early childhood services: This paper, from Emerging Minds, highlights the importance of engaging fathers in early childhood services and provides practical tips that practitioners can use to increase their knowledge, skills and confidence in engaging fathers.
• Engaging fathers and their children: This webinar, from Emerging Minds, explores practices that make it possible for fathers to discuss their children’s social and emotional wellbeing with health professionals.
• Fathers’ work and family conflicts and the outcomes for children’s mental health: This AIFS article reports on data from the Growing Up in Australia longitudinal study and explores father’s experiences of work–family conflict and the flow-on effects for children’s mental health.
• Supporting fathers’ mental health during the perinatal period: This webinar, co-produced by CFCA and Emerging Minds, discusses fathers’ mental health concerns in the perinatal period, the support fathers need during the perinatal period, fathers’ experiences of seeking support, and practice tips and insights for supporting fathers during the perinatal period.
• The impact of paternal positivity on child mental health: This short article, from Emerging Minds, summarises the findings of a meta-analysis conducted by Foster et al. (2022), Paternal Positivity and Child Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis, which examined whether children of fathers who display more paternal positivity are less likely to have mental health challenges.

References

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Fabiano, G. A., Schatz, N. K., Lupas, K., Gordon, C., Hayes, T., Tower, D. et al. (2021). A school-based parenting program for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Impact on paternal caregivers. Journal of School Psychology, 86, 133–150. doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.04.002

Frank, T. J., Keown, L. J., & Sanders, M. R. (2015). Enhancing father engagement and interparental teamwork in an evidence-based parenting intervention: A randomized-controlled trial of outcomes and processes. Behavior Therapy, 46(6), 749–763. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2015.05.008

Gonzalez, J. C., Flores, I., Tremblay, M., & Barnett, M. L. (2022). Lay health workers engaging Latino fathers: A qualitative study. Children and Youth Services Review, 141, 106601. doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106601

Gonzalez, J. C., Klein, C. C., Barnett, M. L., Schatz, N. K., Garoosi, T., Chacko, A. et al. (2023). Intervention and implementation characteristics to enhance father engagement: A systematic review of parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 26(2), 445–458. doi.org/10.1007/s10567-023-00430-x

Lechowicz, M. E., Jiang, Y., Tully, L. A., Burn, M. T., Collins, D. A. J., Hawes, D. J. et al. (2019). Enhancing father engagement in parenting programs: Translating research into practice recommendations. Australian Psychologist, 54(2), 83–89. doi.org/10.1111/ap.12361

Maxwell, N., Scourfield, J., Featherstone, B., Holland, S., & Tolman, R. (2012). Engaging fathers in child welfare services: A narrative review of recent research evidence. Child & Family Social Work, 17(2), 160–169.

Niec, L. N., Barnett, M. L., Gering, C. L., Triemstra, K., & Solomon, D. T. (2015). Differences in mothers' and fathers' readiness for change in parent training. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 37(3), 224–235.

Panter-Brick, C., Burgess, A., Eggerman, M., McAllister, F., Pruett, K., & Leckman, J. F. (2014). Practitioner review: Engaging fathers – recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(11), 1187–1212. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12280

Parra-Cardona, J. R., Bybee, D., Sullivan, C. M., Rodríguez, M. M. D., Dates, B., Tams, L. et al. (2017). Examining the impact of differential cultural adaptation with Latina/o immigrants exposed to adapted parent training interventions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(1), 58–71. doi:10.1037/ccp0000160

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¹ In this resource, ‘fathers’ are defined as male-identifying people who care for and are committed to the wellbeing of a child, regardless of their biological relation, living situation or marital status (Gonzalez et al., 2023; Tully, 2019)

² COACHES is focused on the parent–child relationship and child behaviours as intervention targets (Fabiano et al., 2021). It incorporates fundamental parenting skills but delivers them in the context of recreational activities for fathers and their children. The intervention uses positive parenting skills (e.g. praise, reinforcement and time out) and offers fathers the opportunity to implement them in the sport context, such as through soccer drills and games.

³ PMTO is a clinical and preventive family intervention based on the model of social interaction learning. This intervention aims to promote parent–child positive involvement, help children develop pro-social skills, decrease children’s behavioural issues with effective discipline, enhance parental supervision and help family members negotiate agreements (Parra-Cardona et al., 2017). The culturally adapted version of the intervention was selected for the study included in Gonzalez and colleagues’ review due to the perceived cultural fit between the intervention’s core components and cultural values and parenting practices of Latina/o immigrant parents.